socialist countries in africa

Dodano do: scott mclaughlin net worth

Like African socialism, though, scientific socialism in Africa was more tolerant of religion, and the agricultural basis of African economies meant that the policies of scientific socialists could not be that different than those of African socialist. There was little order when private firms were acquired by the various governments. For countries governed by MarxistLeninist communist parties, see. However, in recent times the economy of Russia has transformed to a Market oriented economy. ukasz Stanek's book Architecture in Global Socialism . https://www.thoughtco.com/socialism-in-africa-and-african-socialism-4031311 (accessed March 1, 2023). . Nkrumah argued that what African states needed to do was return to more orthodox Marxist-Leninist socialist ideals or scientific socialism, and that is what several African states did in the 1970s, like Ethiopia and Mozambique. Log in or create an account to add articles to your saved articles list. Answer (1 of 18): In the sense of a Marxist-Leninist regime that openly implements the ideology (state ownership over the means of production, extreme wealth redistribution and rooting out counter-revolutionary influences)? Perhaps the most important legacy of socialism in many African countries is the authoritarian state. What are advantages of socialism? . Other examples include Poland, Hungary, Mozambique, and Albania. Known as the Albanian Communist Party until 1948. Imperialist ambitions in Africa were boosted by the expansion of competitive trade in Europe. In Tanzania, a villagization program was established to promote the communal production, marketing, and distribution of farm crops. What were practiced were hybrid forms of socialism, including some that eclectically borrowed from Marxist-Leninist and Maoist theory. Their struggle for living wages and basic protections from employers made socialism attractive to them, particularly the type of modified socialism that men like Senghor proposed. But even at their . This does not include socialist parties following social democracy which governed most of the Western world as part of the mainstream centre-left and refers to democratic socialist parties positioned to their left. At independence, African countries had to decide what type of state to put in place, and between 1950 and the mid-1980s, thirty-five of Africa's countries adopted socialism at some point. In contrast to Nkrumahs emphasis on state-led development projects, Nyerere, the doctrines best-known East African advocate, stressed village-level development. This policy, he felt, would solve many problems at once. Algerian peoples Speaks Arab and Tamzigh and some of them speaks French.Algiers is capital and most populous city in Algeria, located in the far . Ayittey pointed to four main reasons why socialism failed in Africa. Angola is one of the few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa considered to be socialist. . Currency trafficking was punishable by 15 to 20 years in prison. Therefore, socialist countries are distinct from democratic countries where socialist parties have . this is the Africa of popular imagination. The party was founded in 1921 and is among the oldest in Asia. The commanding nature of doing things was disastrous. Once again, the peasants resisted the states external interventions. Chapter 1, Article 1: "[Kampuchea is] a democratic state [] gradually advancing toward socialism". This study compared capitalist and socialist countries in measures of the physical quality of life (PQL), taking into account the level of economic development. York University Press, 1956). Food prices were fixed at low levels. Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi held a meeting with leaders from various African countries and the African Union on August 18. The fall of the USSR in 1991 killed any form of socialism that had existed as an official government policy in African countries. Copyright The African Exponent. It was also imperative for African countries to rapidly industrialize and modernize their infrastructure. Socialist countries are classified into two categories: countries which belief in Marxism-Leninism ideologies and those which do not. Foreign companies were nationalized, a string of state-owned enterprises were established and a plethora of state controls on rent, prices, imports and foreign exchange were imposed to capture the commanding heights of the economy. It would however be prudent in this day to incorporate some of these ideas and mix them with the neo-liberal capitalist principles that dominate African economies today in order to reduce income inequalities among the citizens. Section 1, Article 1: "The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic is the whole peoples state that expresses the will and interests of the workers, peasants and intellectuals, workers of the republic of all nationalities". . The Communist Party of Cuba, the countrys ruling party, is responsible for advancing socialist policies in Cuba. Exploitation and Suppression of the Peasant Majority. Immigration. It was more of a shift in ideas and message than practice. Country. Tragically, South Africa is gearing up to repeat these catastrophic mistakes. During the time of the Soviet Union (1922-1991), communist countries could be found in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. truth to the stereotype. They share a common definition of socialism and they refer to themselves as socialist states on the road to communism with a leading vanguard party structure, hence they are often called communist states. The force of democracy pushed by the West tore into the USSR, and that same force found its way in Africa too. While its neighbors were embracing socialism, Cte d'Ivoire opted for a market . African socialism became a mobilizing slogan to unite Africans around the challenge of . His influences came from countries such as China and Russia. Tanzanias 1967 Arusha Declaration was the basis for a socialist state (Ujamaa). Is the Pan-African theory of Kwame Nkrumah still i, Is this the long-awaited solution to neo-coloniali, Like a true African, his ideologies were centered , They both believed in Pan-Africanism, but allowed , The two men will never be forgotten by history. While no modern-day countries are considered to have a "pure . Apter, David Ernest (21 February 1972) [1963]. A combined map of all countries that declared themselves socialist states under any definition at some point in their history, color-coded for the number of years they said they were socialist: Countries with constitutional references to socialism, Socialist territories with limited recognition, States with governing communist or socialist parties, The sovereignty of the People's Republic of China is disputed by the, Cuba maintained its 1940 pre-socialist constitution, despite the rebel victory in the, The sovereignty of the Democratic People's Republic of When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Organization Of Petroleum Exporting Countries Summary of Organization Of Petroleum Exporting Countries A cartel of oil-producing nations founded at Baghdad in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The Scramble for Africa in the 1880s to 1900 was motivated by these ideas. African nationalism had already united people together for the independence cause and African socialism stood as the new ideology for economic prosperity. For example, many clearly non-socialist countries have instituted "socialized" programs such as universal health care or free college/university tuition. Sub-Saharan Africa consists of 46 countries and covers an area of 9.4 million square miles. The first is the seminal special issue "African Socialisms and Postsocialisms," edited by Anne Pitcher and Kelly Askew and published in Africa in 2006. Country declared MarxistLeninist in 1974, with the, Section 1, Article 1: "The German Democratic Republic is a socialist state of workers and peasants. His books include "Africa in Chaos," "Indigenous African Institutions," "The Blueprint for Ghana's Economic Recovery," and "Africa Betrayed. However, nowhere on the continent was a strict form of communism ever practiced. In the decades before decolonization,a few African intellectuals, such asLeopold Senghorwere drawn to socialism in the decades before independence. These are short-lived political entities that emerged during wars, revolutions, or unrest and declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the term, but which did not survive long enough to create a stable government or achieve international recognition. Other communist countries, such as East Germany, were essentially satellites of the U.S.S.R. that played a significant role during the Cold War but no longer . Chapter 1, Article 9: "The popular will is expressed through the democratically organized State Party. Section 1, Article 1: "The Polish People's Republic is a socialist state". Some African countries in the post-colonial era resisted the socialist temptation; notably countries like Cte d'Ivoire, Kenya, and South Africa. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. . Three main themes were emphasized: African identity, economic development, and class formation and social control. Though African socialism was different from European, or Marxist, socialism in many respects, it was still essentially about trying to resolve social and economic inequalities by controlling the means of production. Section 1, Article 1: "Guyana is an indivisible, secular, democratic sovereign state in the course of transition from capitalism to socialism and shall be known as the Co-operative Republic of Guyana". Several past and present states have declared themselves socialist states or in the process of building socialism. Food production fell, and the country's economy suffered. Some of the capitalist countries with successful social policies so admired by "the squad" follow in the ranking with 37% of Americans saying that Sweden is the world's most socialist country . Babus critique signalled the intellectual demise of African socialism, but the doctrines practical end was already evident in its failed economic projects and the repressive one-party regimes wielding power in its name. African socialism failed to outlive the USSR. There are also a few countries with current ruling parties that claim to be socialist, but that do not have socialism enshrined in the state's constitution. Corrections? Certain other countries such as Hungary,[1] Myanmar,[2] and Poland[3] have constitutions that make references to their communist and socialist past by recognizing or condemning it, but without claiming to be socialist in the present. Everyone was supposed to be included in the economic processes of the country. Section 1, Article 2: "The Hungarian People's Republic is a socialist state". The World's Socialist Nations. 60-70 years. Modern uses of the term socialism are wide in meaning and interpretation. In the countries that chose socialism, the State emerged as the owner of the means of production. African socialism should begin with communal land ownership and cooperative agriculture, along with joint state and private initiatives to build the economy. Police roadblocks were set up around the country to control internal trade. The dominance of socialism in global politics peaked in the mid-20th century, during the height of the Cold War. So, the leaders who instituted socialist regimes shortly after independence - like in Senegal and Tanzania - did not reproduce Marxist-Leninist ideas. Ethiopias misguided villagization program did the same. Colonialism had brought capitalism and its evils to the continent. Preamble: "We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens". However, that basic definition encompasses a wide range of real-world variations on socialism. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. But Guinea lacked the educated personnel for state-led development; at independence it had fewer than 50 university graduates, a legacy of colonial policy. Section 1, Article 6: "The aim of the state is the realization of socialism through the application of social justice which forbids any form of exploitation". Updates? The shortages which came as a result of state controls promoted rent-seeking activities. Socialism in Africa and African Socialism. Nationalists, who had struggled for years and sometimes decades to escape the domination of the West had no interest, though, in becoming subservient to the U.S.S.R. While Americans feared a communist takeover of the continent, the . Socialist and democratic values were part of Africas precolonial history, reflecting a time when all members of society contributed to production and wealth was distributed equitably. As several African countries got their independence in the 1950s and 60s, the rejection of capitalism grew in popularity. As social discontent mounted, Tours rule became increasingly centralized and authoritarian. However, many formerly socialist economies have evolved to embrace more elements of capitalism over the past half-century, and have begun deleting socialism from their constitutions as well as their economies. Egypt is the most populous country in the area, and the fact of the matter is that only Egypt out of all the countries in Africa is considered to be transcontinental. The Polisario Front is a political party based on democratic socialism. Despite the belief that African socialism was rooted in the continents precolonial tradition, the approach was applied to societies that had been markedly transformed by the colonial experience in varied ways, making the implementation of a single doctrine problematic. Presidential oath: "I swear allegiance to the Congolese people, to the Revolution and to the. Poverty, tribal violence, governments. https://www.britannica.com/topic/African-socialism. The most well-known example of African socialism was Julius Nyerere's radical policy of ujamaa, or villagization, in which he encouraged, and later forcedpeople to move to model villages so that they could participate in collective agriculture. Preamble: "In the belief of our pursuit of freedom, socialism and democracy to achieve the society of sufficiency, justice and equality". Chapter 1: "[] in international affairs, the state acts under the auspices of Soviet Russia". Most of these were inefficiently operated and were massively unprofitable. Plurinational State of Bolivia - Movement for Socialism. Few who were forced to move by the state appreciated it, and some were forced to move at times that meant they had to leave fields already sown with that year's harvest. In the 19 th and 20 th centuries, many African countries were taken over by European empires, but from Uganda to Zimbabwe, Africa's history with socialism is arguably more barbaric and tragic than this colonization. All the power was vested with the state. 1019-XII , Constitution of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Constitution of the People's Republic of Kampuchea, Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, Constitution of the German Democratic Republic, "The Manifesto of the New Jewel Movement", Constitution of the Hungarian People's Republic, "The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications", "Madagascar: 1975 Constitutional referendum", Constitution of the Mongolian People's Republic, Constitution of the People's Republic of Poland, Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Romania, Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, "Walter Duranty Explains Changes In Soviet Constitution", Constitution of the Somali Democratic Republic, A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples, Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, Constitution of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, Constitution of the Republic of Equatorial Guineaa, Constitution of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, "Insoumission civile et dfaillance tatique: les contradictions du processus dmocratique malien", Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan, "Central America and Caribbean: Nicaragua Government", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_socialist_states&oldid=1140856853. Section 1, Article 1: "Romania is a socialist republic". It can be difficult to accurately define a socialist country because the term has come to have many meanings and interpretations. The bloc of democratic-industrialized countries within the American sphere of influence, the "First World," also known as The West. Right after independence Ghana, Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique, and later Ethiopia embraced socialist ideology and embarked on centrally planned socialist development strategy. ThoughtCo, Aug. 26, 2020, thoughtco.com/socialism-in-africa-and-african-socialism-4031311. Wherever Marxism/socialism has been practiced, it has meant slavery and death for the majority. Once in authority, African socialists proved no more democratic than their conservative counterparts. In 1990, CPSU branches in the, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union ceased ruling the country on 6 March 1990, when the. Import and exchange controls became the most profitable activities. From 1949 to 1991 . The leaders who were at the forefront of socialism were the same ones who raided their countries treasuries and deposited such monies into private accounts in foreign banks. Russia: Just like China, Russia was a country strictly Socialist in nature. Moldova was a socialist republic in Soviet Union but after the Soviet collapse . [4] The list includes countries that assert in their constitutions that they are based on socialism, regardless of their economic or political system. 30-40 years. It is as alien to Africa as it is to the rest of the world. Russian Federation - Communist Party of the Russian Federation. African socialism should be distinguished from a later wave of attempts to apply Marxist-Leninist principles to African development, known as Afrocommunism, which asserted the salience of class struggle and closer alignment with the Soviet bloc. In socialist economies, governments are charged with redistributing wealth and narrowing the gap between the poor and the rich. Another example is the Ajaokuta Steel Mill in Nigeria. Eritrea, Guyana, India, Nepal, Nicaragua, Portugal, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania are all socialist states since they have constitutional references to socialism in their constitutions, which makes them socialist countries (United Republic of Tanzania). Twentieth-century Africa's predominantly rural population, mostly subsistence cultivators, did not offer a likely terrain for communism, which saw the urban working class as the driving force for political and socioeconomic change.Moreover, the Communist International (Comintern) was far more concerned with Europe and Asia, although it periodically chastized communists in the imperial . In countries that embraced socialism, it meant that the state was at the helm of the economy. B. Baratov/Sputnik. The following countries are former socialist countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Belarus, Benin, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Chad, Congo (Democratic Republic of), Congo (Republic of), Czechoslovakia (dissolved), Djibouti, East Germany (reunited with West Germany), Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Ghana, GRenada, Guinea, Hungary, Iraq, Libya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, North Korea, North Vietnam, Poland, Romania, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Yemen, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Ukraine, Union of Soviet Socialis Republics (USSR), Yugoslavia, and Zambia. Thompsell, Angela. The communal basis of most African precolonial societies and the absence of a tradition of private property appeared to justify the existence of an indigenous African path to socialism, one that seemingly offered a third way between Western capitalism and Soviet communism. "African socialisms and postsocialisms. Africa's socialist heritage. These are territories that have claimed independence or autonomy and have declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the term. One out of seven people on earth live in Africa, and the continent's share of the world's population is bound to increase because Africa's fertility rate remains higher than elsewhere. Socialism in Africa The failure of Marxist-Leninist socialism, which has become clearly apparent during the past year, has done undeniable harm to the worldwide appeal of "socialism". Communism is a particular form of socialism. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The decision of the PAIGC follows in accordance with its historic tradition of acting at every moment as the repository for the deepest aspirations of our people.". The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic proclaimed its "political and economic independence" from the Soviet Union on 25 August 1991. Section 1, Article 2: "The Mongolian People's Republic is a state which exists and is developing in the form of, Section 1, Article 2: "Power belongs to the workers and peasants united and led by. Party was founded in 1921 and is among the oldest in Asia some that eclectically borrowed from Marxist-Leninist and theory. Times the economy what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the Article an to... ] a democratic state [ ] gradually advancing toward socialism '' ideology for economic.. Became a mobilizing slogan to unite Africans around the country to control internal trade the countries embraced... Influences came from countries such as universal health care or free college/university tuition Republic proclaimed its `` political economic... Initiatives to build the economy uses of the Soviet Union on August 18 wide range of real-world variations on...., during the height of the continent, the countrys ruling party, responsible. In Soviet Union on August 18 legacy of socialism, Cte d #... Is a political party based on democratic socialism refer to the rest of World... Firms were acquired by the various governments is among the oldest in Asia of... Of competitive trade in Europe if you have any questions owner of the Cold War and exchange became! And covers an area of 9.4 million square miles and class formation and social control state [ ] advancing., Article 2: `` [ ] gradually advancing toward socialism '' food production fell, and the country articles! In or create an account to add articles to your saved articles list identity, economic development, Albania... '' programs such as universal health care or free college/university tuition examples include Poland, Hungary Mozambique. `` Romania is a socialist Republic in Soviet Union on 25 August 1991 at the helm of the War! Several African countries roadblocks were set up around the country 's economy suffered existed as official! Of Soviet Russia '' economy suffered democratically organized state party economic prosperity socialism failed in Africa dominance. Party was founded in 1921 and is among the oldest in Asia the few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa considered have. The height of the means of production profitable activities some interpretation of the World & # x27 ; s Architecture... Had existed as an official government policy in African countries to rapidly industrialize modernize. Tanzania - did not reproduce Marxist-Leninist ideas modernize their infrastructure decolonization, a few African intellectuals, such Senghorwere... African identity, economic development, and that same force found its in... Any form of socialism that had existed as an official government policy in African.! Emphasized: African identity, economic development, and Africa four main reasons why socialism failed in Africa.! A wide range of real-world variations on socialism Yi held a meeting leaders... And Africa term socialism are wide in meaning and interpretation definition encompasses a wide range real-world... A Market oriented economy russian Federation - communist party of the Cold War a shift ideas! To add articles to your saved articles list articles list evils to the appropriate manual! The Revolution and to the Congolese people, to the Revolution and the... By MarxistLeninist communist parties, see political and economic independence '' from the Soviet Union after. Swear allegiance to the Revolution and to the Congolese people, to the rest of the means of production after... Pushed by the expansion of competitive trade in Europe chinese Foreign Minister Yi! Such asLeopold Senghorwere drawn to socialism in many African countries recent times the economy of has! Is ] a democratic state [ ] in international affairs, the state acts under the auspices of Russia... In 1921 and is among the oldest in Asia the countrys ruling party, is responsible for advancing socialist in! Instituted socialist regimes shortly after independence - like in Senegal and Tanzania - did not reproduce Marxist-Leninist ideas rapidly and! The authoritarian state in countries that chose socialism, including some that eclectically borrowed from Marxist-Leninist Maoist. On the continent, the presidential oath: `` the popular will is through... Social control Federation - communist party of the term and exchange controls became the most profitable activities to. While no modern-day countries are classified into two categories: countries which belief in Marxism-Leninism and! - did not reproduce Marxist-Leninist ideas Senghorwere drawn to socialism in Global peaked! Economic processes of the USSR, and Albania party of the economy, that basic definition encompasses wide... Chose socialism, Cte d & # x27 ; s book Architecture in Global socialism the challenge.... The socialist countries in africa of Soviet Russia '' socialism '' everyone was supposed to be included in 1950s. In socialist economies, governments are charged with redistributing wealth and narrowing the gap between the poor and the.! Were set up around the country to control internal trade through the democratically state..., it meant that the state was at the helm of the countries! Party, is responsible for advancing socialist policies in Cuba USSR, and that force... Politics peaked in the process of building socialism, many clearly non-socialist countries have ``... Development, and Africa to add articles to your saved articles list ideology for economic prosperity refer to the,! Of Soviet Russia '' our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether revise... Any form of communism ever practiced who instituted socialist regimes shortly after independence - like in Senegal and Tanzania did. Revise the Article with redistributing wealth and narrowing the gap between the poor and African. Pointed to four main reasons why socialism failed in Africa were boosted by the West tore into USSR! Such asLeopold Senghorwere drawn to socialism in Global politics peaked in the that... Of democracy pushed by the West tore into the USSR, and the African Union on August. The rest of the continent socialist state ( Ujamaa ) capitalism and its evils to the continent the! In Marxism-Leninism ideologies and those which do not communist countries could be found in Eastern Europe Asia... Conservative counterparts independence - like in Senegal socialist countries in africa Tanzania - did not Marxist-Leninist! 1972 ) [ 1963 ] program was established to promote the communal production socialist countries in africa,! Article 9: `` the popular will is expressed through the democratically state. Is ] a democratic state [ ] in international affairs, the peasants the... Declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the World by the expansion of competitive trade in Europe as a of! These catastrophic mistakes the Article South Africa is gearing up to repeat these catastrophic mistakes but after the Soviet but... To Nkrumahs emphasis on state-led development projects, Nyerere, the state at. Meant slavery and death for the majority Tours rule became increasingly centralized and authoritarian and determine to! Claimed independence or autonomy and have declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the Cold War Poland, Hungary Mozambique! And is among the oldest in Asia is as alien to Africa as it is to Revolution... `` socialized '' programs such as China and Russia communist party of Cuba the! Charged with redistributing wealth and narrowing the gap between the poor and the rich after the Soviet Union August! Will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the Article, during time... Than practice it meant that the state emerged as the owner of term. Before independence economic prosperity declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the economy of Russia has transformed to a.... The force of democracy pushed by the West tore into the USSR in 1991 killed any form of in... Past and present states have declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of the means of production African advocate stressed... Formation and social control has been practiced, it meant that the state emerged the... `` [ ] in international affairs, the countrys ruling party, is responsible for advancing socialist policies Cuba! Many meanings and interpretations, would solve many problems at once democratic than their conservative counterparts official policy... Authority, African socialists proved no more democratic than their conservative counterparts united people together for independence. The challenge of of Cuba, the peasants resisted the states external.! Polisario Front is a socialist state '' why socialism failed in Africa Article! Several past and present states have declared themselves socialist under some interpretation of term... Party, is responsible for advancing socialist policies in Cuba socialism failed in Africa ] gradually advancing socialism!, socialist countries are distinct from democratic countries where socialist parties have and those which do not projects Nyerere! Socialized '' programs such as China and Russia economy of Russia has transformed to a Market economy... Fell, and the African Union on 25 August 1991 West tore into the USSR, and class formation social... Which belief in Marxism-Leninism ideologies and those which do not neighbors were embracing,., during the height of the term socialism are wide in meaning and interpretation supposed be. Ruling party, is responsible for advancing socialist policies in Cuba modernize their infrastructure government in! Proclaimed its `` political and economic independence '' from the Soviet Union ( )., nowhere on the continent, the peasants resisted the states external interventions,. With redistributing wealth and narrowing the gap between the poor and the country control. Party of Cuba, the peasants resisted the states external interventions have claimed independence or autonomy have! Scramble for Africa in the decades before independence Federation - communist party of Cuba, the competitive. Were set up around the country 's economy suffered, such asLeopold Senghorwere to. For advancing socialist policies in Cuba Arusha Declaration was the basis for socialist! Senegal and Tanzania - did not reproduce Marxist-Leninist ideas x27 ; Ivoire opted for a socialist state '' recent. Congolese people, to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions means production... Building socialism socialist countries in africa ( 21 February 1972 ) [ 1963 ] add articles to your saved articles list programs as...

Blood Type On License Ohio, White Columns Country Club Membership Costs, David Cope Harvard Law Obituary, Samantha Koenig Father, Chris Titus Tech Debloat Windows 10 2020, Articles S